Hexavalent chromium contamination in groundwater and its implication to human health: a Monte Carlo model approach in Indonesia

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is one of the priority substances due to being capable of inducing adverse effects on human health. Understanding hexavalent chromium contamination in groundwater resources is essential for risk estimation. Therefore, in this study, 18 shallow groundwater samples were investigated from the area near the Pangkajene river to assess the health risks posed to communities. Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) was applied to help in estimating non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks, as well as analyzing the sensitivity of each health risk parameter. The average Cr(VI) concentration was 0.002 mg/L, which is higher than the public health goals (PHG) value for drinking water. There was no non-carcinogenic risk discovered from groundwater exposure (HI < 1). Meanwhile, the carcinogenic assessment revealed that the Pangkajene populations had a low tendency of developing cancer (TCR > 1E-06) with the mean probability risk distribution value in adults and children being 1.3770E-05 and 4.9367E-06, respectively. This indicated the adult population was more vulnerable than children. Based on the sensitivity test, Cr(VI) concentration is the most influential exposure factor in developing cancer in the Pangkep community, with 78.6–78.9% contributions in adults and children. Hence, monitoring and controlling Cr(VI) concentration in shallow groundwater should be implemented in this area.